The world's first completely artificial human

The British roboticist designers are made the world's first completely artificial human. According to creators, He's the worlds first bionic man. Comprising artificial organs, Synthetic blood, robotic limbs and a human face. And as if that's not enough, he can speak and also listen and artificial organs including a pancreas, kidney, spleen, and trachea. The artificial human was created for a Channel 4 documentary called How to Build a Bionic Man. The project cost £640k ie.
$1 million. and showcases the latest achievements and advancements in bionic technology and prosthetic science. “Strictly speaking, he’s not a robot,” Channel 4’s science editor Tom Clarke says in a report (below) about the bionic creation. “His parts aren’t designed to work together, but each one either is, or soon could be, part of a living human being.” Rex’s two-meter-tall ‘body’, built with currently available bionic and prosthetic technology, includes a prosthetic face, hands, hips, knees and feet as well as cochlear implants which enable him to hear and retinal implants that allow him to sense objects in front of him. Speech synthesis technology means Rex can make sense of

simple statements and even respond to some questions.
Artificial blood pumps through his artificial organs, which include a heart, kidney and pancreas. He also has a spleen and trachea. The stomach is missing, but one imagines it won’t be too long before the science boffins fix him up with one of those, too.

“Throughout history people have always sought to enhance themselves to overcome disabilities or to become bigger, better, stronger and faster,” Clare Matterson of the Wellcome Trust, which is funding the exhibition, Please watch video.

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Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering. Nanotechnology is not just a new field of science and engineering, but a new way of looking at and studying .
How Nanotechnology Is Started
 The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the development of the scanning tunneling microscope that could "see" individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began.
Fundamental Concept  

It’s hard to imagine just how small nanotechnology is. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10^-9 of a meter. Here are a few illustrative examples:

• There are 25,400,000 nanometers in an inch
• A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick
• On a comparative scale, if a marble were a nanometer, then one meter would be the size of the Earth

Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms—the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies.

But something as small as an atom is impossible to see with the naked eye. In fact, it’s impossible to see with the microscopes typically used in a high school science classes. The microscopes needed to see things at the nanoscale were invented relatively recently—about 30 years ago.

Once scientists had the right tools, such as the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and the atomic force microscope (AFM), the age of nanotechnology was born.

Although modern nanoscience and nanotechnology are quite new, nanoscale materials were used for centuries. Alternate-sized gold and silver particles created colors in the stained glass windows of medieval churches hundreds of years ago. The artists back then just didn’t know that the process they used to create these beautiful works of art actually led to changes in the composition of the materials they were working with.

Today's scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at the nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale counterparts.

 

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Wish you all of our respective visuter Happy dashain 2069
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On 10/17/12, Ramchandra poudel <rcpoudel3@gmail.com> wrote:
> Mutation is defined as the sudden change in heritable cheractor.
> Mutation occurring naturally is called natural mutation and occurring
> artificially is called induced mutation in general there are 2 type of
> mutation they are
> (1) point or micro mutation
> (2) large or macro mutation
>

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What is Mutation

Mutation is defined as the sudden change in heritable cheractor.
Mutation occurring naturally is called natural mutation and occurring
artificially is called induced mutation in general there are 2 type of
mutation they are
(1) point or micro mutation
(2) large or macro mutation

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Science

Science is every thing in this morden era

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German-born American physicist and Nobel laureate, best known as the creator of the special and general theories of relativity and for his bold hypothesis concerning the particle nature of light. He is perhaps the most well-known scientist of the 20th century.Einstein was born in Ulm on March 14, 1879, and spent his youth in Munich, where his family owned a small shop that manufactured electric machinery. He did not talk until the age of three, but even as a youth he showed a brilliant curiosity about nature and an ability to understand difficult mathematical concepts. At the age of 12 he taught himself Euclidean geometry.
Einstein hated the dull regimentation and unimaginative spirit of school in Munich. When repeated business failure led the family to leave Germany for Milan, Italy, Einstein, who was then 15 years old, used the opportunity to withdraw from the school. He spent a year with his parents in Milan, and when it became clear that he would have to make his own way in the world, he finished secondary school in Aarau, Switzerland, and entered the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich. Einstein did not enjoy the methods of instruction there. He often cut classes and used the time to study physics on his own or to play his beloved violin. He passed his examinations and graduated in 1900 by studying the notes of a classmate. His professors did not think highly of him and would not recommend him for a university position.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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Amino Acid

Amino Acids, important class of organic compounds that contain both the amino (8NH₂) and carboxyl (8COOH) groups. Of these acids, 20 serve as the building blocks of proteins (see Protein). Known as the standard, or alpha, amino acids, they comprise alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, and valine. All 20 are constructed according to a general formula:

As the formula shows, the amino and carboxyl groups are both attached to a single carbon atom, which is called the alpha carbon atom. Attached to the carbon atom is a variable group (R); it is in their R groups that the molecules of the 20 standard amino acids differ from one another. In the simplest of the acids, glycine, the R consists of a single hydrogen atom. Other amino acids have more complex R groups that contain carbon as well as hydrogen and may include oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur, as well.

When a living cell makes protein, the carboxyl group of one amino acid is linked to the amino group of another to form a peptide bond. The carboxyl group of the second amino acid is similarly linked to the amino group of a third, and so on, until a long chain is produced. This chainlike molecule, which may contain from 50 to several hundred amino acid subunits, is called a polypeptide. A protein may be formed of a single polypeptide chain, or it may consist of several such chains held together by weak molecular bonds. Each protein is formed according to a precise set of instructions contained within the nucleic acid (see Nucleic Acids), which is the genetic material of the cell. These instructions determine which of the 20 standard amino acids are to be incorporated into the protein, and in what sequence. The R groups of the amino acid subunits determine the final shape of the protein and its chemical properties; an extraordinary variety of proteins can be produced from the same 20 subunits.

The standard amino acids serve as raw materials for the manufacture of many other cellular products, including hormones (see Hormone) and pigments. In addition, several of these amino acids are key intermediates in cellular metabolism (see Metabolism).

Most plants and microorganisms are able to use inorganic compounds to make all the amino acids they require for normal growth. Animals, however, must obtain some of the standard amino acids from their diet in order to survive; these particular amino acids are called essential. Essential amino acids for humans include lysine, tryptophan, valine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, methionine, and arginine. They are found in adequate amounts in protein-rich foods from animal sources or in carefully chosen combinations of plant proteins.

In addition to the amino acids that form proteins, more than 150 other amino acids have been found in nature, including some that have the carboxyl and amino groups attached to separate carbon atoms. These unusually structured amino acids are most often found in fungi and higher plants.

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Monkey

Monkey (animal), any of about 160 species of primates that have grasping hands, forward-facing eyes, and highly developed brains. Most monkeys also have tails, a characteristic that distinguishes them from their larger primate cousins, the apes. Monkeys are highly skilled climbers, and most spend much of their lives in trees. Some have prehensile tails—that is, tails capable of grasping—that they can use as a fifth limb while foraging for food or climbing.

Zoologists classify monkeys into three distinct families: marmosets, Capuchin-like monkeys, and Old World monkeys. Marmosets and Capuchin-like monkeys are found only in Central and South America and are known collectively as New World monkeys. Marmosets are dainty animals with luxurious fur, which is sometimes strikingly colored. One species, the pygmy marmoset, is the world's smallest monkey, measuring just 30 cm (12 in) long, at least half of which is tail, and weighing as little as 113 g (4 oz) when fully grown. The average life span of a pygmy marmoset in the wild is 10 to 12 years. By comparison, the Capuchin-like monkeys, which include capuchin monkeys, douroucoulis, spider monkeys, woolly monkeys, and howler monkeys, are more robust, although they are still lightly built. Howler monkeys, for example, are among the largest species and measure up to 1.8 m (6 ft) from the top of the head to the tip of the tail. Even so, their maximum weight is only about 10 kg (22 lb). Howler monkeys living in the wild have an average life span of around 16 to 20 years. Many New World monkeys have prehensile tails, and all have broad noses with sideways-opening nostrils.

Old World monkeys include guenons, mangabeys, colobus monkeys, macaques, langurs, and baboons. Compared to New World monkeys, their noses are narrower and have downward-opening nostrils. Old World monkeys do not have prehensile tails; instead, most use their tails simply for balance. As a result, these monkeys are less acrobatic than their New World cousins. Most Old World monkeys spend at least part of their time on the ground. While many are careful not to stray too far from the protective cover of trees, baboons are strong and aggressive enough to defend themselves in the open. Armed with fearsome canine teeth and weighing up to 41 kg (90 lb), male baboons are more than a match for many predators. A baboon in the wild can live as long as 30 years.

PREDATORS

The predators of Capuchin-like monkeys are humans and birds of prey. The predators of marmosets include small cats, birds of prey, and snakes. The predators of macaques include large cats, such as leopards, tigers, and panthers, and large snakes, such as pythons. The predators of langurs and colobus monkeys include large cats, humans, and some birds of prey. The biggest threat to all monkeys, however, is the loss of habitat

RANGE AND HABITAT

Monkeys are restricted to South and Central America, Africa, and the southern parts of Asia. Most monkeys live in the forests of the tropics and subtropics, where warm temperatures ensure a year-round supply of food. In rain forests, where food is abundant, monkeys often stay in the same area all year, but in drier habitats, they have to range further afield, possibly traveling more than 18 km (10 mi) a day.

Although most monkeys live in warm climates, some do survive in extreme environments. The Japanese macaque manages to survive the winter cold on the Japanese island of Honshū—the only nonhuman primate to survive that far north. A few tropical monkeys survive on high mountains well above the snow line, some at elevations as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft). These high-altitude species include the Asian snub-nosed langurs, the African vervet, and several species of macaques. Monkeys can also survive in extreme deserts. In southwest Africa, for example, a troop of yellow baboons lives in the Namib Desert, where rainfall averages just a few inches a year.

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Dog

Dogs

Dog, mammal generally considered to be the first domesticated animal. This trusted work partner and beloved pet learned to live with humans more than 14,000 years ago. A direct descendant of the wolves that once roamed Europe, Asia, and North America, the domestic dog belongs to the dog family, which includes wolves, coyotes, foxes, and jackals. Dog ancestry has been traced to small, civet-like mammals, called miacis, which had short legs and a long body and lived approximately 40 million years ago.The evolving relationship between the domestic dog and humans has been documented in fossil evidence, artifacts, and records left by earlier civilizations. Prehistoric dog skeletal remains, excavated from sites in Denmark, England, Germany, Japan, and China, indicate the early coexistence of dogs with people. An ancient Persian cemetery, dating to the 5th century bc, contained thousands of dog skeletons. Their formal burial and the positioning of the dog remains reveal the esteem in which the ancient Persians held their dogs. The relationship shared by dogs and humans also is evident in cave drawings, early pottery, and Asian ivory carvings that depict dogs. A statue of Anubis, the half dog, half jackal Egyptian god, was discovered inside King Tutankhamen’s tomb, constructed in about 1330 bc.

Literary references to the dog include those found in the Bible and in the Greek classic the Odyssey by Homer. In 1576 an English physician and dog fancier, John Caius, wrote a detailed text on dog breeds, Of English Dogges. Dogs are featured in tapestries that were created in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), and in the work of many artists, including 17th- and 18th-century European painters Peter Paul Rubens and Thomas Gainsborough.

Although it is not known how humans and dogs first learned to coexist, people soon discovered the many ways dogs could enrich their lives. Dogs have been used to hunt for food, herd animals, guard livestock and property, destroy rats and other vermin, pull carts and sleds, perform rescues, and apprehend lawbreakers. They have been used during wartime as sentinels and message carriers. Today trained dogs are used to alert deaf people to common household sounds, such as the ringing telephone or doorbell; guide the blind; or retrieve objects for quadriplegics. Perhaps the most common of the many roles served by the domestic dog, however, is that of companion. As animals with strong social tendencies, dogs typically crave close contact with their owners. And people tend to form loving bonds with dogs. This companionship often helps to ease the pain and isolation of the elderly or people whose physical or mental health requires long-term convalescence or institutionalization.

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Snake

Snake (reptile), legless animal with a long, flexible body covered with overlapping scales. Snakes are reptiles, a diverse group of animals that also includes lizards, turtles, and crocodiles. Snakes are thought to have evolved from lizards and share many characteristics with this group—particularly the so-called legless lizards, which have tiny, almost imperceptible legs. But unlike most lizards, snakes have thin, forked tongues, and they lack external ears. And while most lizards have movable eyelids that periodically close to protect and lubricate the eyes, a snake’s eyes are always open, protected by immobile, transparent scales.
Like all reptiles, snakes are cold-blooded, or more correctly, ectothermic—that is, they cannot produce their own body heat. Instead, they rely on the sun to heat their bodies and then regulate their temperature with behavior. Because they do not rely on energy from food to generate body heat, snakes can survive on an extremely meager diet. Some wait for months between successive meals, and a few survive by eating a single, large meal just once or twice a year. When they do eat, snakes swallow their prey whole rather than biting off small pieces. Many snakes have specialized jaws that enable them to swallow animals that are far larger than their own heads. Although uncommon, some snakes, such as the African rock python, have been observed eating animals as large as an antelope or a small cow.
With over 2,500 species belonging to more than 10 families, snakes are a large and successful group. They owe much of this success to their versatility—snakes occupy habitats ranging from underground burrows to the tops of trees to ocean depths as great as 150 m (490 ft). They are found on every continent except Antarctica, and although they are most abundant in tropical areas, many survive in regions marked by extreme cold. The range of the European adder, for instance, extends north of the Arctic Circle. The only places without snakes are parts of the polar regions and isolated islands, such as Ireland and New Zealand.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

  Although all snakes have a long, cylindrical body, many species boast unique modifications suited to particular habitats and lifestyles. Burrowing snakes, for example, have muscular, stout bodies and solidly built heads that they use to push through soil. Sea snakes have flattened, paddlelike tails for swimming, and the long, thin shape of many arboreal, or tree-dwelling, snakes provides agility when navigating between branches. Some snakes, including pythons, retain characteristics that reflect their evolution from lizards or from lizardlike ancestors. These snakes have traces of hind limbs called spurs, which are usually more prominent in males than in females.The smallest snakes are the blind snakes. One member of this group, the Texas slender blind snake, reaches just 13 cm (slightly more than 5 in) in length when full grown and weighs less than 2 g (less than 0.1 oz). The largest snakes are the anaconda and the reticulated python, both of which grow as long as 10 m (about 33 ft) and can weigh up to 250 kg (about 550 lb). Among most species of snakes, females are larger than males.

Skin

Snake bodies are covered in overlapping scales composed of a horny material called keratin. These transparent scales make up the dry, smooth, outer layer of skin, whose primary function is to prevent water loss. Snakes owe their coloration to pigment cells located in the skin layer below the scales. Most snakes display drab earth tone colors to blend with their natural surroundings. Arboreal species, such as the emerald tree boa, are often vibrant shades of green, a coloration that helps them hide among leafy foliage. Some snakes, such as coral snakes, have brilliant yellow and orange stripes that warn predators of their venomous bite.

Snakes regularly shed the outer layer of their skin as they grow. Even in snakes that are not growing, the scales become drab and worn over time, and must be periodically replaced by a new, healthy layer. Some species of snakes shed their skin about every 20 days, but other species shed it only once a year. In the shedding process, a new layer develops below the surface of the old one, which gradually separates in preparation for being shed, or sloughed. The snake begins the shedding process by rubbing its nose against rocks or other hard objects to separate the old layer from its lips. After the old layer is loosened, the snake crawls out of its old skin, typically shedding it in a single piece.

Internal Organs


Snakes share an internal anatomy similar to that of other reptiles, but modified to fit within an extremely narrow space. The snake’s three-chambered heart can move sideways to accommodate large prey animals traveling from the mouth to the stomach. The snake’s respiratory system is also compact: Most snakes rely exclusively on the right lung for respiration. In these animals, the left lung is either very small or nonexistent. Snakes have two kidneys, which are positioned so that the left one lies behind the right one rather than beside it. Similarly, the reproductive organs—a pair of testes for males and a pair of ovaries for females—are situated end-to-end. The snake has an extremely muscular and flexible stomach, a narrow liver, and both large and small intestines. Unlike the small intestines of many other vertebrates, those of snakes are stretched out instead of coiled. Like other reptiles, snakes have a cloaca, an internal chamber that receives wastes from the digestive system and eggs or sperm from the reproductive system before they leave the body. Snakes do not have a urinary bladder; instead, they excrete all their wastes through the rectum.
Senses


A snake obtains information about its environment primarily through the Jacobson’s organ located in the roof of its mouth. The snake continuously flicks out its forked tongue to collect scent particles from the air and the ground. When the tongue draws back into the mouth, the forked tips fit into cell-lined pockets in the Jacobson’s organ, which detects the odors of the particles it receives. This system is keenly sensitive, and snakes rely on it to locate both mates and prey.

Vision and the ability to detect vibrations are also important to the survival of most snakes. Snakes lack eardrums and external ear openings, but they have small bones in their heads that conduct sound. They are able to hear low-frequency sounds and to sense vibrations that travel through the ground or water. The majority of snakes have good eyesight, especially for detecting moving objects, although most burrowing snakes can only distinguish between light and dark.

Pit vipers, boas, and pythons have an unusual adaptation for detecting warm-blooded prey and predators. On the heads of these snakes are small pits lined with cells that are extremely sensitive to heat. These pits enable the snakes to sense the presence of a warm-blooded animal and strike accurately, even in total darkness.

Feeding

Snakes have a wide range of food preferences. Many snakes eat worms, insects, lizards, small mammals, birds, and frogs. Some snakes, such as the Australian bandy-bandy, feed only on other snakes. Several groups of snakes, including the egg-eating snakes of Asia, prefer the eggs of other animals; these snakes have modified teeth and vertebrae in the throat for breaking eggshells. These teeth snag the shell as the egg, swallowed whole, starts down the digestive tract; the broken shell is regurgitated. Among some species, males and females eat different types of food. For example, male Arafura filesnakes eat small fish that inhabit shallow water, while females of the same species eat larger fish that live in deeper water. Many snakes change their diet as they grow larger, as in the reticulated pythons. When young, these snakes feed mostly on rats. When they reach about 4 m (13 ft) in length, they switch to larger prey, such as wild pigs, monkeys, and small deer.
Snakes use diverse strategies for capturing their prey. Slender and agile snakes actively pursue their prey, but snakes with thicker bodies, such as pythons, are more likely to wait in a coiled position and ambush their prey as it passes by. Many snakes begin to swallow their prey while it is still alive. The teeth of snakes point backward and are not designed for chewing—instead, snakes use their teeth to pin down their prey to prevent its escape. Others kill prey animals before eating them.

Snakes that kill their prey use one of two methods: constriction or envenomation—the injection of venom. Constrictors, such as pythons and kingsnakes, wrap their coils around a prey animal, tightening their grip each time the prey exhales. In this way, constrictors gradually suffocate their victims. Several groups of snakes kill their prey with venom. Copperheads, bushmasters, and other vipers inject their venom and then release the prey immediately, later following the scent trail to find the dead animal. Others, such as cobras, simply hang onto the prey they have poisoned and swallow it when its struggles have ceased.

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